Gospel of Luke
Ann Boyd, Epiphany 2006
In the opinion of Biblical scholars, Luke-Acts was a two-volume set of a single literary project. The separation of Luke, the Gospel, from Acts of the Apostles may have occurred early in Christian history. There are no existing manuscripts in which the two are joined. The first volume fits well with the other Gospels but Acts is unlike any other New Testament writings. Acts provides an introduction to the letters of Paul; it ends with Paul in Rome; it places Paul in the context of the larger mission of the church.
The prologue of Luke (1:1-4) and Acts (1:1-2)j sets forth the intention of the author. The address to Theophilus suggests either that Theophilus is an individual who sponsored the literary production and is somehow involved in the Christian movement. Theophilus may equally well serve as a representative of the early forming Christian group. Luke is identified by ancient authorities as the physician, a co-worker with Paul (Phlm 24; Col 4;14; 2 Tim 4:11). Lacking any other historically verified information about Luke or Theophilus, we have a two-volume work by an otherwise unknown Christian to an otherwise unknown patron sometimes in the latter part of the first century.
The Gospel of Luke follows the outline structure of the Gospel of Mark. The audience is most likely Gentile Christians. The level of Greek in the writing is more sophisticated than in Mark or John. Luke-Acts accounts for a full quarter of the New Testament canon. The length of Luke-Acts is due to the scope of Luke’s vision. The account is to be orderly and cover the “things that have been fulfilled.” His narratives reaches back to the beginning of humanity in contrast to Matthew who takes it back to Abraham. Luke’s origin is Adam (3:23-38). Luke tells us more than Matthew does about Jesus’ birth and childhood, hence the traditional reading of Luke 2 on Christmas Eve. Luke includes more about the resurrection appearances (24:1-53). The Gospel contains the parables of compassion and mercy in the prodigal son (15;11-24) and the good Samaritan (10:30-35). The combined texts of Luke and Acts cover the story of god’s fulfilling his promises to Israel in the life, death, resurrection of Jesus and with the birth and spread of the church. Thus Luke’s vision combines the decisive revelation of God in Jesus and the work God intends for the church in the world. Luke tells the story in such a way that what happens with Jesus foreshadows the experience of the church and how the church understands Jesus’ life, death, and resurrection shapes the meaning of the church. The narratives of Luke-Acts covers about sixty years.
Genre and Purpose: One view of the writing is historical. Since Luke says that his purpose is to offer an “orderly account” which in his time would mean the work of a historian. He had sources and he used them critically. He tries to relate the story to a broader historical context by providing chronological reference points (Lk 1:5, 2:1-2, 3:1-2, Acts 18:12). He identifies power agents of Palestine (Acts 12:20-22) and in Asia Minor (Acts 19:31) and Europe (Acts 18:12-17). Luke also makes connections between events to connect event and causality. Use of the personal pronoun “we” suggests an eyewitness account by the author or another. Luke also had written sources (Lk1:1) which included Mark and materials from Q along with other distinctive materials designated L. Luke uses Mark differently than Matthew. Luke eliminates doublets such as the feeding stores whereas Matthew multiples them. Instead of inserting blocks of discourse into the narrative, Luke alternates narrative and sayings. The sayings of Jesus in Luke have an air of biographical quality. Luke uses the ancient rhetorical ideal of “writing in character” to fit the style and character and occasion of the narrative at hand. In both Luke and Acts it is hard to identify the precise source material. Luke is selective in what he includes; for example he does not include any of the rural missionary efforts of Paul, but focuses only on cities. Peter and Paul represent the first missionaries to the exclusion of others. The selective angle of the writing has led some scholars to think of Luke more as a biographer than a historian.
In the Hellenistic philosophers a twofold form similar to Luke-Acts is common. The life of the founder is told followed by an account of the founders’ deeds and teachings and then the succession narrative describes the work of the founders’ students. It is the emphasis that Luke gives to the fate of the historic people, Israel that shifts the genre to that of history. Luke has a positive view of the Gentiles (in contrast to Matthew’s xenophobia). Roman officials appear positive and this element suggests the writing could be apologetic for the Christian movement. It is an important political point to place Christianity as rooted in Judaism. If the apologetic nature is intended, it may serve as an apologetic defense of Paul to Jewish believers within the Christian community. Luke presents Paul as one not opposed to Torah but a true teacher of Israel. The purpose of apologetic literature was to defend Jews against attack and to reinterpret the tradition within a pluralistic context.
In the prologue (Lk 1:1-4) Luke-Acts is addressed to the Christian community, to Theophilus who has been “instructed” in the Christian story. The full story of the Gospel is then to secure Theophilus in his knowledge, not just of the past, but also of the present by interpretation. The biblical idiom “fulfilled” means that God brought his promises to fulfillment. The text then suggests that Luke’s audience was mostly Gentile. When the mission of the spread of Christian belief and practice is offered to the Jews, most reject it, but when offered to the Gentiles, they accept it. For a thoughtful gentile Christian, it is important to know that God has not cancelled his promises for the first covenant people, Israel, but kept those promises securing the trust necessary to believe the Gospel.
God made promises to Israel through Abraham (Gen 12:1-3). If the historical people were not in possession of the promised blessing and Gentiles were, what does that mean about God’s reliability? What are the implications for gentile believers? The core issue is theodicy: defending God’s work in history. By telling how each ting happened in order, Luke intends to show that God did keep the promises to Israel and then extended blessings to the gentile world.
Thus from a historical perspective Luke tells the story of Jesus as rooted in Israel and assures gentile Christians that they can trust the “good news”. Thus Luke emphasis is on the fulfillment of OT prophecy, a characterization of the early Christians as spirit-inspired prophets, a prophetic Christology in which the story of Moses is used to structure the two volumes.
The form or structure of Luke and Acts are written in parallel. Mary, for example, appears at the beginning of each volume; the apostles work is remarkable similar to the ministry of Jesus; Paul’s final journey to suffering resembles Jesus’ journey to suffering. For understanding the text it is as important where something occurs as what happens.
Geographical structure: Geographical place is a literary and theological instrument. The center of the story is Jerusalem. The whole movement of the Gospel is toward Jerusalem. The infancy account leads to the presentation of Jesus in the Temple in Jerusalem. The temptation account reverses Matthew’s order for the last two temptations so the climax is reached in Jerusalem. The transfiguration at the end of the Galilean ministry prepares for the journey to Jerusalem. After the resurrection, all the appearances take place in the environs of Jerusalem and Jesus’ last instruction is to “stay in the city” (24:1-29).
The movement in Acts is away from Jerusalem. Jesus says in Acts 1:8 “you shall be my witnesses in Jerusalem and in all Judea and Samaria and to the ends of the earth.” The ministry in Jerusalem (A 1-7) spins outward to evangelization of Judea and Samaria (A 8-12), then Asia Minor and Europe (A 13-28). Each movement however circles back to Jerusalem. Paul also gives importance to Jerusalem as the city where Jesus died and the new church was born (1 Thess 2:14-15; Gal 1:17-21; Rom 15:29, 26-28). The city and the temple for Luke symbolize the people of Israel.
Prophecy as Literary Devise: Luke uses the phrase “it is necessary” to connect a prophecy and event: suffering and glorification of the Messiah (Lk 9:22; 17:25; 24:7; A 3:21; 17:3); apostasy of Judas and election of Matthias (A 1:16-22), suffering of Paul (A 9:16) and of all Christians (A 14:22). Luke inserts characters into the story that are shown to fulfill prophecy. For example, Luke combines with Jesus’ three Passion predictions the clear announcement of their fulfillment in the resurrection accounts (Compare Luke 9:22, 44; 18:32 with 24:6-8, 44). Jesus said the 12 would become judges over Israel (Lk 22:30) and later they exercise judgment among the people (Acts 5:1-11). Simeon’s prophecy at the beginning of the gospel (L 2:34) sets us up to anticipate a prophet whose ministry creates a division among the people. The Gospel ends with Jesus’ promise of a power from on high (Lk 24:49) which helps the reader anticipate the ascension (Lk 24;50-53; Acts 1:9-11) not as absolute departure but as a transformation of presence and to understand the outpouring of the Holy Spirit in Acts 2:1-4.
Luke structures the story so that a prophecy of Jesus is carried out in a narrative that follows. For example after Jesus declared that sinners accepted God but the Pharisees rejected God’s plan and after quoting the charge that he was a friend of tax collectors and sinners, Jesus is accepted by a woman who is a sinner and rejected by a Pharisee (Lk 7:36-50). It is also the case that what is told in the Gospel becomes explicit in the story of the apostles. Luke’s interpretation of the Gospel is found in the action of Acts.
Acts has been called the Book of the Holy Spirit, the power of the mission. There are five accounts of the outpouring of the spirit (A 2:1-4; 4:28-31; 8:15-17; 10:44; 19:6). Those who are acting in response to the spirit are described as prophets. They proclaim Good news, they are witnesses who work signs and wonders, they preach and their work creates division among the people, some accept the message, others do not. Collectively these characteristics are in line with a prophet.
In Peter’s speech at Pentecost he cites Joel 2:28-32 about the Spirit being poured out on all flesh (A 2;17-21). Luke changes the citation of Joel in three places in order to indicate that the outpouring of the spirit is an eschatological event, that signs and wonders have and are continuing to happen, thus suggesting that a prophet like Moses has risen. Peter means that Jesus is explicitly a prophet like Moses: Jesus of Nazareth, a man attested to you by God with mighty works and wonders and signs which god did through him in your midst…this Jesus you crucified…but God raised him up (A 2:22-24). Luke then says that the Spirit that is active is the Spirit of Jesus (A 2:33; 3:13; 4:10, 30, 33).
Moses Paradigm: Peter draws explicit connection between Moses and Jesus and so does Stephen. The Moses story has three stages: a) at the time when the promises to Abraham were about to be fulfilled (Acts 7:17), Moses is sent by God to “visit” the people (that is to save them). They are “ignorant” of his identity and role and so reject him a first time and Moses fled into exile (A 7:23-29). While in exile, Moses is empowered by God and sent back to the people. He led them out of Egypt and through the desert with “signs and wonders.” The people again reject Moses, preferring an idol made with hands. Even in power of God’s signs and wonders, Moses is rejected and as a consequence the people are themselves rejected.
It is not clear whether Luke was influenced in how he understood Jesus in light of the Moses typology or in reverse order. The Moses story resonates with the suffering before glory of Jesus is revealed. Moses received the law/ word of God and gave it to the people. Jesus received from God the Holy Spirit and poured it out on his witnesses. The implicit threat is also there, those who do not listen to the voice of “this prophet” will be “cut off from the people” (A 3:23).
When Jesus raised the widow’s son from the dead (Lk 7:11-15) the people were fearful saying “A great prophet has arisen among us…God has visited his people.” In the transfiguration story (Lk 9:35) a voice from heaven identifies Jesus as Son and says, “Listen to him.” The disciples on the road to Emmaus (Lk 24:19) describe Jesus of Nazareth, as a “prophet mighty in deed and word before God and all the people.”
Infancy Stories: Luke’s infancy account is a form of haggadic midrash: language evoking texts from Torah and the environment of the biblical world. The annunciation of Gabriel to Mary (1;28-33) recalls the annunciation in Judges 13:2-5, the oracles of Zeph 3;14 and Zech 2:10 and the prophecy of 2 Sam 7:12-16. Mary’s Canticle (Lk 1;46-55) adapts and alters the Song of Hannah from 1 Sam 2:1-10. Thus the infancy narrative roots the birth of Jesus in the longer story of Israel.
Luke 1-2 is complex:
The annunciation to Zechariah (Lk 1:8-23) is contrasted to one made to Mary (1:26-38). The visitation of Mary top Elizabeth with the Canticle of Mary (1:39-55) is a narrative that follows the annunciation prophecy as a story to show how the prophecy is fulfilled.
The birth of John (1;57-67) is placed against that of Jesus (2;1-21). The Canticle of Zechariah, the Benedictus (1:67-79) precedes the birth accounts and the purification, Canticle and prophecy of Simeon follow (2:22-35) along with the praise of the prophetess Anna (2:36-38). The geographical center is Jerusalem, beginning (1:8) and ending (2:42).
The prophetic announcements and canticles tell us of the significance of John and Jesus. John will go before him in the spirit and power of Elijah. Zechariah says of John, You child will be called prophet of the most high for you will go before the Lord to prepare his ways, to give knowledge of salvation to his people in the forgiveness of their sins (1:76-77). Jesus “will be great and called Son of the Most High” (1;32). Luke is clear that Jesus is also a Davidic messiah (Jesus will be given the throne of his father David (Lk 1:32-33). Luke stresses that Jesus is more than David’s son; he is also Lord (Lk 20:41-44, 10:1, 17:6, 18:6, 19:8) and because the Holy Spirit overshadows Mary, Jesus is also Son of God (Lk 1:35; 3:22; 4:3; 8:28; 10:22; 22:70).
John also is important as a prophet of Israel – to prepare the people for the Messiah. The promises of God to Abraham brought about through Jesus is emphasized (Lk 16;22-31; 19:9; Acts 3:25; 7:2-8; 13:26). It is God’s intervention to save the people. In addition the preference for the poor so evident in Torah and prophetic writings of the Hebrew Canon are again highlighted in Mary’s canticle. God reverses the fortunes of rich and poor, powerful and weak; the birth of the Messiah transforms power and position.
Zechariah praises God for “raising up a horn of salvation for us in the house of his servant David (1:68) and when Jesus is born, the angels announce, “a savior who is Christ the Lord” (2:11). The understanding of Luke is that Jesus brings salvation. In Mark and Matthew the verb “to save” occurs 13 times, in Luke it occurs 17 times. Luke also gives the title Savior (soter) to Jesus in Luke 2:11 and Acts 5:31; 13:23.
The devout Simeon has been waiting for the consolation of Israel and when the child Jesus is presented he praises God for allowing his eyes to see thy “salvation” as a “light of revelation unto the Gentiles and for the glory of the people Israel. Simeon also prophesies that the chosen one will generate division among the people.
Mary is an important character in Luke. In many of the Lukan narratives, the male character has a female counterpart. Mary is more than a representative woman; she represents the faithful people of Israel. The lowly woman, poor in a patriarchal society, virgin and thus more marginalized is being raised up, filled with grace, given the Holy Spirit. Mary also represents Israel in their anguish, for a “sword will pierce her soul” (2:35). May also represents the restored Israel because she is present with the first apostles in the upper room to receive the outpouring of the Holy Spirit at Pentecost (Acts 1:14). Mary is also an individual person of faith, a servant of the Lord, responsive to God’s call and commission.
IV: The Prophetic Messiah:
The relationship between John the Baptist and Jesus continues in the ministry narrative. The Word of God came to John (Lk 3:2). The phrase has theological importance. In the parable of the seed, the seed is the word of God (Lk 8:11, 21). The Word of God is a synonym for the Christian mission in Acts (19:20; 6:2,7).
The baptism of Jesus by John has symbolic meaning as a prophetic anointing. God gives the Spirit to Jesus (Lk 3:21-22). The Spirit descends while Jesus is praying just as the disciples receive the Spirit at Pentecost while praying. Jesus prays at every turn in his ministry according to Luke (6:12; 9:18; 10:21; 11:1; 22;32; 23:46). Jesus is an obedient Son of the Father.
The rejection of Jesus in Nazareth (Luke 4:16-30) is symbolic of being the prophetic messiah. Luke moved this story from its place in Mark (and Matthew) to the beginning of the ministry. Having received the Spirit, and tempted in the wilderness for forty days, Jesus began preaching. In Nazareth he reads from Isaiah, “The spirit of the Lord is upon me….to preach good news to the poor” (Lk 4:18//Isa 58:6; 61:1-2). Jesus then announces, “Today this Scripture has been fulfilled in your hearing” (4:21). The nature of the messiahship is to proclaim deliverance to the outcast and afflicted. The townspeople reject him because they are not willing for the messiah to offer salvation for any but those inside the historical people of Israel. One of Luke’s main themes is that the preaching of Jesus as Messiah creates a division within the people.
Sermon on the Plain:
Here Luke molds the “sermon on the mount” into the sermon on the plain giving both blessings and woes (6:17-29). The programmatic prophecy of 4:18 is fulfilled as the Messiah brings “good news” to the poor, the hungry, those who weep and those who are persecuted. In contrast, woes are for the rich, well fed, joyful and those approved by others. The rich are sent away empty and the powerful brought low, while the poor are lifted up. This reversal reflects the prophetic tone of the Magnificat by Mary. The excluded are included and accepted by God. The good news is that the standards of humans are not those of God.
When John the Baptist is in prison and asks for confirmation that Jesus is the one expected, the message Jesus sent in reply was “the poor have the good news preached to them” (Lk 7: 21-22). Likewise in the parable of the great banquet, Jesus suggests that those preoccupied with possessions could not respond to the kingdom invitation and were rejected so the call went out to the poor, the lame etc. (Lk 14). Finally, the Lukan parable of the rich man and Lazarus brings the theme to completion. The language is very similar to the Beatitudes. The parable reverses fortunes; he who was rich is lost; he who was poor is received (Lk 16). Persons in power rejected John as did those in control of religious custom; the poor and the sinners however came to him to be baptized. Jesus too is a friend of tax collectors and sinners but is rejected by a Pharisee who cannot recognize him as one sent from God (Lk 7:36-50). The division is between those ordinary people of the land, especially the marginal or outcast by ritual law and those who are leaders of the people – the rich, the powerful, and the arrogant (Lk 16:15; 18:9).
Formation of the People:
In the first 8 chapters of the Gospel we see the people of God forming around Jesus. There are the disciples and some women who support them (8:1-3). Beginning in Luke 9, Jesus prepares a foundation of authority within the people to replace the religious established authorities. He sends out the 12 to preach and heal (9:2), distribute food (9:10-17) making a link between service in the kingdom and table fellowship. At the last supper, Jesus bestows authority on the Twelve to judge the twelve tribes of Israel (22;30) which is fulfilled in their subsequent leadership in the Jerusalem community (Acts 2:41-47; 4:32-51).
At the transfiguration, Jesus converses with Moses and Elijah (9:31). Then Jesus turns his head toward Jerusalem. The section from (9:51-19:44) is called the journey narrative. Within the journey framework Luke places the largest portion of the sayings material. Jesus is speaking as he travels. Three groups in succession surround him: the amorphous crowds, his opponents, and the disciples. Luke is careful to note what Jesus says to each distinct group in this section. To the crowds, Jesus issues warnings of judgment and calls to discipleship. Jesus speaks in parables to the crowd about the kingdom, (Lk 13:18-30) then turns to the Pharisees and speaks a lament over Jerusalem and its rejection of the prophets (13:31-35); while at dinner he rebukes their greed for honor (14:1-14) and tells the parable of the great banquet (14:15-24). He calls the crowd to commitment (Lk 14:25-35) and turns to the Pharisees and gives the three parables of the lost (sheep, coin, and son) because they objected to his attracting sinners (15:1-32). To the disciples Jesus gives the instructions on use of possessions and the story of the unjust steward (16:1-13) then turns to the Pharisees and calls them lovers of money (16:14-15) and tells them the parable of the rich man and Lazarus (16:19-31) and then turns finally to the disciples with teaching on scandal and faith (17:1-10).
The point of these alternating sayings is that on the way to Jerusalem to face rejection and death at the hands of the powerful leaders, Jesus is forming the true people of God around himself. The crowds are being called to repentance, those who respond are being taught the conditions of discipleship. When the Pharisees ask him when the kingdom of God will come, Jesus answers, “The kingdom of God is in the midst of you” (Luke 17:21). The journey reaches an end with Jesus’ triumphant entry into Jerusalem. The small band of 12 and a few women (Lk 8:1-3) is now a “multitude of disciples” (19:37) greet Jesus as king.
V. The Passion Narrative:
Luke omits the anointing at Bethany in Mark and shifts two elements of the passion to Acts: the death of Judas and false witnesses who accuse Jesus of speech against the temple. Luke also adds material not in Mark. He attributes Judas’ betrayal to Satan’s entering his heart (22:3). He expands the last-supper sayings to include a discourse on leadership as service within the community (22:24-38). He includes a separate hearing before Herod (23:6-12). The crucifixion scene is richer with Jesus addressing crowds and the two criminals. The cry of abandonment is absent and instead is a prayer of acceptance and forgiveness and promise (23:46, 34, 43). Among the Synoptics, Luke’s account is closest to John’s Gospel. Distinctive to Luke is the image of Jesus as sophos (wise man/sage) and the role of the populace in his death.
Hellenistic moral ideals characterized a righteous person as one unafraid of death, free of fear and filled with courage as a model for his followers. At the last-supper, Jesus gave his heritage (the authority of his ministry) to the disciples (22:29-30) and a model for this authority “I am among you as one who serves” (22:27). He prays for them in the Garden of Gethsemane, and is comforted by an angel. When Peter strikes the high priest’s servant, Jesus heals the man’s ear (22:51). At the end, Jesus is not powerless but goes willingly to do his father’s will (22:42). He comforts the women of Jerusalem (23:28-31), and offers paradise to the thief (23:39-43). The sophos are just (dikaios); Jesus is innocent of any crime reflected in three declarations of innocence by Pilate (23:4, 14, 22) and confirmed by Herod (23:15). Jesus forgives his executioners (23:34) and entrusts his life to God (23:46). The centurion confirms that this is a Just man (23:47).
In contrast with Matthew, Luke’s Passion narrative places the rejection and crucifixion of Jesus squarely on the shoulders of the Jewish leadership in Jerusalem. The post-resurrection account on the road to Emmaus summarizes this view (Lk 24:20-21) “how our chief priests and rulers delivered him up to be condemned to death.” Matthew shows all the people calls for his death “His blood be upon us and upon our children” Matt 27:25).
To achieve this goal, Luke makes several alterations in Mark’s text. After Jesus cleanses the temple (19:45-46), the priests and scribes try to destroy him but the common people hand onto his words (19:47-48). Jesus is teaching the people when the leaders begin their attack (20:1-2). The leaders are careful because they feared the people (22:2). Those who arrest Jesus are only the chief priests, captains and elders (22:47, 52). ON the way to the cross, women lament over him and the crowd follows him (23:27). Only rulers mock him (23:35) and as he dies the people turn away “beating their breasts” (23:48) as a sign of remorse.
VI. Resurrection and Ascension:
Just as Moses was vindicated by God after his reject and given new power so now Jesus is vindicated by his resurrection. The ascension motif is unique to Luke (24:50; Acts 1:9-11). Peter says in the Pentecost speech, “God raised him up on the third day and made him manifest, not to all the people, but to us who were chosen by God as witnesses, who ate and drank with him after he rose from the dead” (A 10;40-41). This Jesus, who was taken up from you into heaven, will come in the same way as you saw him go into heaven (Acts 1:11). But the marvel of Luke’s story is that the ascension does not make Jesus absent, but is seen by Stephen “standing at the right hand of God (A 7:55-56), by Paul in a blinding light (9:1-9) because Jesus is present through words and deeds of witnesses and in spiritual interaction with them. Jesus is more powerfully present through the signs and wonders worked by them “among the people” than in his earthly ministry.
The ascension does not signal a removal of Jesus from the story but symbolizes his presence in a new mode. The ascension accounts provide a bridge between the appearances to witnesses and Jesus’ presence in the community through the Holy Spirit.
The resurrection appearances have distinct characteristics. They occur in the region around Jerusalem. The women at the tomb are not told to Go into Galilee but to “remain in the city” for the bestowal of power (24:47-49). Luke shows that the prophecy is fulfilled: Jesus’ passion predictions are fulfilled (24:6), and other scriptures that predict Christ must suffer first before coming into his glory (Lk 24:26).
Luke combines the ordinary with mystery. Jesus has a bodily resurrection stressed by eating and drinking with disciples (24;30, 41-43; Acts 1:4; 10:41). Even if they failed to recognize him they were filled with joy when they knew him in voice, or saw him as he made himself known. The other way Jesus continues to be present is in the “breaking of the bread” (24:35). Finally, the appearances point to the continuation of the story in Acts: “repentance and forgiveness of sins should be preached in his name to all nations, beginning from Jerusalem. You are witnesses of these things” (Lk 24:47-49). The church then is the people who allow Jesus’ presence in a new a more powerful way: “Behold, I send the promise of my father upon you. But stay in the city until you are clothed with power from on high” (Luke 24:49).
VII: Acts Narrative
The church for Luke is the restored Israel. Pentecost uses the external symbols of wind and fire to describe the transformation of those who received the Spirit. They spoke in tongues. Representing persons from all over the Diaspora, they proclaimed the mighty acts of God. The many languages of Babel were the consequence of human arrogance and led to a great dispersion of the people and much confusion. God selected Abraham to reunite them. Now the Holy Spirit fulfills the promise to Abraham and all were drawn together (Acts 2:11).
Peter’s speech (Acts 2:14-36) interprets the event and makes the witness explicit. The Joel citation is used to link the gift of the spirit with the promises of God. The ending of the speech posits a messianic community (Acts 2:36): “Let all the house of Israel therefore know assuredly that God has made him both Christ and Lord, this Jesus whom you crucified.” When the people asked what they could do, Peter said, repent, be baptized, and receive the Holy Spirit (2:38). The Spirit is the Promise! Not just for the literal people of Israel but to “all that are far off, everyone whom the Lord God calls” (2:39). The renewed people attended the temple, and were a restored people because they represented as fragments from the Diaspora.
Luke could have ended the story here but the question remained, if the leadership would not accept Jesus, would they allow the infant community devoted to the apostles’ teaching to thrive? The question is answered in the rest of the book of Acts.
Peter healed the lame man (3:11-26) in the name of Jesus. The money is collected and used in common. The Sanhedrin are jealous of the apostles’ success among the people. Then Peter is brought to trail before the Sanhedrin (4:1-22; 5:17-42). The apostles are punished but do not stop preaching.
To account for the beginning of the spread of the gospel from Jerusalem into the Gentile world, Luke tells about a conflict in the community about roles (6:1-16). The Twelve had spiritual authority symbolized by their function of feeding the people and seven were chosen by the community for the Hellenistic mission. The arrest and trial of Stephen and his death results in the dispersal of the missionaries except for the Twelve and thus the word spreads beyond the city.
Gentile Mission
God had called Israel to be a light to the nations and thus the connection is made in Simeon’s canticle when he calls the salvation brought by Jesus a light for revelation to the Gentiles (Luke 2:32). Luke presents the idea that believing Jews and Gentiles make up the authentic Israel, the people of God. Philip carried the gospel to Samaria, had his mission confirmed by representatives from Jerusalem (Acts 8:1-24). Barnabas confirms the Antioch mission (11:22). Peter works in Lydda and Joppa (A 9:32-43) ending up in Caesarea and the conversion of the centurion Cornelius (Acts 10). Paul emerges in this context, encountering the risen Lord on the road to Damascus (9:1-9). Paul is supported and linked with the Jerusalem community through Barnabas (9:27). The interwoven appearance of the central figures of Peter, Barnabas, and Paul reinforces the impression that the overall missionary effort is for the church. The mission of Paul to the Gentiles is not idiosyncratic but part of the work of the whole church and his mission is connected to the believing community in Jerusalem, the restored Israel.
The experience of Paul and Peter teach them that God intends to include the Gentiles. Peter is disinclined to preach to Cornelius but the entire household responds when he does. Paul begins with the Jews in each place and if they do not respond, he also preaches to Gentiles. When gentiles respond, they are baptized and this leads to a question in Jerusalem about baptism and circumcision, observance of Torah, table fellowship, etc. (Acts 15) The narrative of the experience of God within the assembly enables the community to discern the working of the Spirit, deeper insight into the meaning of Scripture, e.g. Luke 15:14-18 cf Amos 9:11-12. “Simeon has related how God first visited the Gentiles, to take out of them a people for his name. And with this the words of the prophets agree, as it is written, ‘After this I will return, and I will rebuild the dwelling of David which has fallen; I will rebuild its ruins, and I will set it up, that the rest of men may seek the Lord, and all the Gentiles who are called by my name, says the Lord, who has made these things know from of old.”
Paul in Acts:
Acts 16-28 describes Paul’s missionary journeys and the success of the gentile mission. Acts gives us some details that help date the Thessalonian, Corinthian and Roman mission. The letters of Paul are primary sources but the “historical” account in Acts helps date these as Luke tells us in Acts 18:12 that Gallio was proconsul of Achaia when Paul encountered him in Corinth (about 50 CE). In short, there is some discrepancy between the chronology of events in Acts regarding Paul and the information gleaned from Paul’s letters. Second there are differences in theology between the presentation in Acts and the writings of Paul. In Acts, Paul touches base with the Jerusalem church before and between each mission. The time frame and sequence is slightly different in Galatians but even here Paul reports several trips to Jerusalem although Paul stresses his independence from Jerusalem (Gal 1:11-12; 2:5-11). It is not clear what the council in Jerusalem was, who attended, what authority it had, what subjects were discussed, or how it affected various missions. Acts account is not easily reconciled with the Galatians letter. It is easier to align 1,2 Thessalonians, 1,2 Corinthians and Romans with the accounts in Acts than the letters from captivity – Colossians, Philemon, Philippians, Ephesians, and 2 Timothy. Galatians, 1 Timothy, and Titus are impossible to place with any confidence in the framework of Acts. In Acts, Paul is never said to have written a single letter. In Acts Paul is a preacher and founder of churches.
In the letters of Paul, Paul is plain, possessing no particular eloquence, but in Acts, Paul is depicted as a masterful talker, to sophisticated philosophers in Athens, or rulers in his defense, or Jews in synagogue. Paul refers to the sings and wonders as the power of the cross, whereas in Acts, Paul’s abilities are much more an indication of his spiritual power. In Acts, Paul is an observant Jew, taking a vow, purifying himself in the temple, have his friend Timothy circumcised, but in 1 Cor 9:20 Paul says he is a Jew to the Jews and refuses to circumcise Titus (Gal 2:3). Luke-Acts sees Paul as part of the prophetic tradition; God works in and through men to reveal God’s Spirit. All the characters in Acts present the theology of Luke!
In the context of being a light to the gentiles, Luke has Paul effective relate to the population by a) healing a cripple in Lystra (Acts 14:8-18) to which the pagan population thinks the “gods have come down to us in the likeness of men”. In Acts 19:11-40 Paul is at Ephesus and turbulence breaks out between the demon forces and the god-men as if it came from the Life of Appolloniun of Tyana. In Acts 17 Paul preaches at the Areopagus in Athens and like a wandering philosopher or sophist he builds on the native piety of his listeners to create a higher understanding of the one divine power (see Dio Oration 12).
From beginning to end, Luke’s story concerns God’s fidelity to God’s promises worked out in the intricate and often opaque events of history. Through the prophets God never stops calling the people, offering fulfillment of the promises of liberty from captivity and of freedom to serve God “without fear, in holiness and righteousness.” (Luke 3:74-75).